Peer Reviewed Articles Aggression in Movies Male Female

Abstruse:It is of import to empathise the content of media, as media can promote stereotypes that communicate what gender roles, appearances, and acts of violence are adequate in lodge. This content analysis of 147 superheroes in eighty movies found that male heroes appeared much more than frequently than female heroes. Females were more probable to work in a group while males were more likely to work alone. Males were more powerful, muscular, violent, and evil while women were more than attractive, thin, sexy/seductive, innocent, afraid, and helpless. Compared to males', females' wearing apparel (both costumes and non-costumes) were more revealing on both the upper and lower bodies. Although both genders oftentimes take special abilities and apply weapons, male characters are more than probable than female characters to have more than one special power and use more than one weapon. Males more often had super strength and resistance to injury, while female characters more than often were able to manipulate elements (e.g., fire). Males were significantly more likely to use fighting skills, fire/flame weapons, and guns than females. The messages portrayed through superhero movies are discussed, with emphasis on implications of gender differences in portrayals of characters in movies.

The portrayal of movie superheroes may influence gender-related attitudes and behaviors, and reify socially constructed gender norms. Media portrayals communicate behavioral norms for both males and females (Paek, Nelson, & Vilela, 2011) and take potential to affect behaviors and attitudes. For instance, individuals who watch large amounts of television set typically accept more than stereotypical beliefs well-nigh gender than people who sentry less (Signorielli, 1989) and viewing superhero programs has been positively related to male stereotyped play for boys and playing with weapons for both genders (Coyne, Linder, Rasmussen, Nelson, & Collier, 2014). Both adults and children imitate characters' deportment or advent (e.g., Coyne et al., 2014; Dittmar, 2009).

Content analyses of movies (and other media) are i method of understanding messages related to gender norms (due east.thousand., Schultz, Moore, & Spitzberg, 2014). The purpose of this content analysis is to analyze superhero movies and place gender differences in superheroes' roles, appearance, and violence.

The Importance of Studying Superhero Movies

Superhero movies have grown in popularity, especially in recent years, and attract a large number of viewers (Time Magazine ). As of 2016, half dozen of the summit 30 grossing films of all time are superhero movies (BoxOfficeMojo.com). Superhero films are activity-oriented and frequently describe individuals with boggling powers, technology, or skills who gainsay often equally extraordinary evildoers. Essentially, superheroes serve as exemplars and their depiction may communicate ideas about a wide range of societal norms and values, including those relating to masculinity and femininity.

Children view superheroes as role models because of traits (e.g., appearance) or skills (e.1000., weapons, violence) the characters possess (Anderson & Cavallaro, 2002;), which contribute to expectations and perceptions of gender roles (Jaffe & Berger, 1994). Messages well-nigh gender are communicated in both the quantity and qualities of male and female characters. For instance, male characters often outnumber female characters in video games (Dietz, 1998; Ivory, 2006; Miller & Summers, 2007; Scharrer, 2004), television shows (including cartoons; Aubrey & Harrison, 2004; Bakery & Raney, 2007), and advertising (Paek et al., 2011) perhaps because male child viewers outnumber daughter viewers (Thompson & Zerbinos, 1997) or considering boys are considered less likely to watch programs that have female atomic number 82 characters than those that have male leads (Thompson & Zerbinos, 1997). Further, male and female characters are portrayed differently. Male heroes are more oft highly aggressive (Milkie, 1994) while female heroes are more oft compassionate, nurturing, and understanding (Calvert, Kondla, Ertel, & Meisel, 2001). Underrepresentation may extend beyond gender. For example, many superheroes appear to exist White males. The lack of diversity in superhero renditions may add to socially synthetic views near race/ethnicity, gender, and their intersection. As well, gender norms might be racialized, such that White superheroes might be depicted with unlike qualities than Black superheroes. Because their popularity, it is of import to analyze the letters superhero films convey.

Content of Media: Roles, Appearance, and Violence

Previous studies evaluated gender roles in video games (Dietz, 1998; Ivory, 2006; Miller & Summers, 2007), cartoons (Bakery & Raney, 2007; Calvert et al., 2001), and Telly advertising (Paek et al., 2011), but accept not specifically focused on superhero characters. This content analysis expands on previous research by analyzing superhero movies and reveals how superhero movies portray men and women in terms of their roles, advent, and the type/quantity of violence they commit. Furthermore, although the researchers recognize the importance of examining race as information technology relates to gender, every bit will be demonstrated, in order to accomplish adequate sample sizes, the current project focuses on gender. Nosotros encourage future research to focus on the intersections of race and gender in studying media with larger samples.

Gender Differences in Roles

When females are shown in media, they are sometimes portrayed as non-essential or passive characters (Dietz, 1998; Haninger & Thompson, 2004; Ivory, 2006). Female person characters are more probable than males to have a mentor (Baker & Raney, 2007) and bulk of female person characters piece of work in a squad rather than lonely (Baker & Raney, 2007). Collectively, these results may suggest to viewers that women are less important, knowledgeable, and capable than men – and less likely to exist a hero (Miller & Summers, 2007; Signorielli, 1989; Thompson & Zerbinos, 1997). Farther, these portrayals may propose that males practice not need to consult others or require assistance. In sum, media research suggests that there might be important gender differences in the roles of male and female person superhero characters. Prior enquiry has besides examined gender differences in appearance (e.chiliad., Ivory, 2006; Miller & Summers, 2007).

Gender Differences in Advent

Previous content analyses of media characters accept revealed that women are shown primarily as sex objects (Miller & Summers, 2007). Females are more likely than males to be portrayed in a sexualized fashion (Ivory, 2006) or equally engaging in sexually suggestive behavior (Haninger & Thompson, 2004). In doing so, women typically wear less and more than provocative clothing than men (Dietz, 1998; Thompson & Haninger, 2001; Scharrer, 2004). Generally, females are portrayed as attractive, sexy, and feminine (Baker & Raney, 2007; Dietz, 1998; Ivory, 2006; Miller & Summers, 2007; Scharrer, 2004), while males are portrayed as rugged, tough, masculine, and muscular (Baker & Raney, 2007; Miller & Summers, 2007; Scharrer, 2004). Females are more than often portrayed as helpless or as victims than males (Aubrey & Harrison, 2004; Dietz, 1998; Miller & Summers, 2007; Thompson & Zerbinos, 1997). Too, in cartoons, females are depicted as more emotional and superficial or more probable to go overexcited in a crisis than males (Bakery & Raney, 2007). Such results betoken that men and women are portrayed very differently in terms of appearance and behaviors, including behaviors associated with power or aggression.

Gender Differences in Violence

Past content analyses accept indicated that male characters are frequently violent (Scharrer, 2004), use more weapons, and have more than abilities (i.e., invisibility, super speed, martial arts, flying, or using magic) than female characters (Miller & Summers, 2007). Females' victories are achieved through wit, nurturing, pity, and persuasion rather than the weaponry, physical strength, and aggression of their male person counterparts (Calvert et al., 2001). Thompson and Zerbinos (1997) institute that both male and female person children perceived male person cartoon characters as more violent than female characters. In contrast, Baker and Raney (2004) establish no significant differences in aggression between male and female characters in cartoons. These studies indicate that, in some contexts, the media portrays men and women differently in terms of violence and conflict resolution. This could reinforce gender stereotypes that women are less powerful or have fewer abilities than men and that men are not capable of nurturing or compassion. The current study finds similar gender differences.

Overview of Report

This written report examined total-length superhero movies to determine if in that location are gender differences in characters' roles, appearances, and violence.

A general research question and several hypotheses were developed based on by content analyses. The general research question asks how characters are portrayed in superhero movies. Specifically, what roles practice the superhero characters play (eastward.yard., hero, supplemental graphic symbol)? Are they portrayed as muscular, attractive, powerful, or sexy? Are they tearing, do they take special powers, and practise they apply weapons?

Hypotheses:

Male person characters will have different general roles (eastward.one thousand., less likely to piece of work in a group) than females (Hypothesis 1a) and unlike specific roles (e.g., soldier, detective) than females (Hypothesis 1b).

• ¥ Males volition appear more muscular and powerful than females, who will be more attractive, sexy, and thin (Hypothesis 2a) and article of clothing more revealing clothing than male characters (Hypothesis 2b).

• ¥ Males will take more special powers/abilities (e.g., super strength) (Hypothesis 3a) and will apply weapons more than often than females (Hypothesis 3b).

Methods

Movies were selected from a listing of "comic book /superhero" movies categorized by Blockbuster.com. The listing contained 146 movies released betwixt 1978 (starting with Superman: The Moving-picture show) and 2009. Fourscore total-length motion pictures (listed in Appendix A) or cartoons available for rent in the English language language were selected for analysis from this listing. The remainder were excluded due to a lack of availability (non bachelor for hire) or considering they were offered in only a foreign language. Researchers selected the 2 main male superheroes (if two were available; if more than than two were bachelor, two were selected randomly) and all female superheroes. A total of 147 hero characters were evaluated. Despite over sampling of female heroes, there were only 47 female heroes and 100 male person heroes, a rate of ane female for every 2.xiii male person characters.

A codebook was adult based on past content analyses and a literature review. Researchers watched 1 movie in lodge to operationalize written report definitions (e.g., societal standards of size, attractiveness, behavior). Facial expressions (due east.g., aroused, happy) were assessed with an explicit smile or frown for both male and female person characters. Assessments of other characteristics, such as muscularity, were gendered. For case, female characters were rated on muscularity relative to other females. Changes to the codebook were made based on discussion between researchers.

Next, inter-rater reliability analysis ensured that researchers had a common agreement of the questions and operational definitions of variables. Ii researchers watched the aforementioned movie and completed their codebooks individually. They then compared responses and settled disagreements through give-and-take. Sixteen movies were included in the inter-rater reliability analysis. Holsti'south coefficient revealed an overall inter-rater reliability rate of .90, indicating that coders had a high level of overall agreement (run into Table 1). Coefficients for individual variables ranged from 0.66 for the sexy/seductive variable to 0.97 on other variables. One researcher coded the remaining 64 movies.

Table 1: Holsti'due south coefficient of reliability for all factors

Variable	Holsti	Variable	Holsti
Gender of main character	0.97	Office of graphic symbol	0.97
Character'south looks: muscular	0.84	Character's looks: sexy or seductive	0.66
Grapheme's looks: attractive	0.7 0.78	Character's looks: thin	0.69
Character's looks: powerful	0.84	Character'due south looks: helpless	0.88
Character's looks: helpful	0.81	Character'south looks: evil	0.91
Character's looks: happy	0.72	Character'southward looks: mad	0.78
Character's looks: carefree	0.84	Grapheme'due south looks: innocent	0.84
Graphic symbol's looks: afraid	0.81	Grapheme's looks: violent	0.69
Character's power: invisible	0.97	Character's ability: super speed	0.94
Grapheme'southward ability: martial arts	0.94	Character's ability: skate/board/wheel	0.97
Character'south ability: special senses	0.97	Character'south ability: flying	0.97
Character's power: magic	0.97	Character'due south ability: using weapons	0.97
Graphic symbol'south ability: swim	0.97	Character's ability: super force	0.94
Graphic symbol's ability: resistance to injury	0.97	Character'south power: manipulates elements	0.97
Character's weapon: gun	0.97	Grapheme's ability: other	0.97
Graphic symbol'south weapon: fire	0.97	Graphic symbol's weapon: knife/sword	0.91
Character'southward weapon: fighting	0.94	Character's weapon: grenades	0.97
Character's weapon: tank	0.97	Grapheme's weapon: ice	0.97
Character'southward weapon: magic spells	0.97	Character's weapon: bow and arrow	0.97
Graphic symbol'due south weapon: rope	0.97	Character'due south weapon: poison	0.97
Graphic symbol wears costume	0.94	Character'due south weapon: other	0.97
Costume: overall	0.84	Costume: overall tightness	0.84
Costume: revealing lower body	0.94	Costume: revealing upper body	0.91
Non-costume clothes: overall	0.88	Not-costume clothes: overall tightness	0.84
Not-costume clothes: revealing lower body	0.91	Non-costume clothes: revealing upper trunk	0.88
Overall Holsti coefficient	0.90

Measures

The codebook included variables measuring gender, appearance, special abilities, and weapons. Appearance and attire variables were rated using a Likert scale of 0 (non at all) to 4 (extreme). Special abilities and weapon usage variables were scored equally "yep" (nowadays) or "no" (not nowadays). "Yes/no" questions assessed characters' roles (e.g., does hero work in a grouping?).

Results

Difference of proportions tests adamant the variation betwixt male and female superheroes in regard to roles, weapon usage, and special abilities. Difference of means tests (t-tests) assessed significant differences betwixt male and female person superhero appearance and attire.

Research Question: General Portrayal of Characters

The research question asks how characters are portrayed in superhero movies. For example, what abilities do they have? What roles practise they play? Are they muscular, attractive, powerful, or sexy? Males were rated an average of ii.83 (out of 4) on the powerful calibration, with 84% of characters scoring higher up the calibration midpoint. Similarly, males scored two.42 on the muscular scale, with 77% scoring higher up the calibration's midpoint. Females averaged 2.36 on the sexy/seductive scale, with 74.5% scoring higher up the midpoint. Similarly, females scored 2.66 on a scale measuring thinness, with 78.8% scoring to a higher place the scale'southward midpoint. They as well averaged iii.15 in attractiveness, with 100% scoring in a higher place the midpoint. Thus, the majority of male characters were portrayed as powerful and muscular, while the majority of females were portrayed as sexy, sparse, and attractive.

Twenty of 47 (42.half-dozen%) female characters and 75 of 100 (75%) male characters had more than one special power, indicating ane female for every 3.75 male characters. Twelve of 47 female characters (25.5%) and 58 of 100 male characters (58%) had more than 1 weapon, indicating 1 female for every 4.83 male characters.

Hypothesis 1 investigated gender differences in superheroes' roles.

Hypothesis 1a was partially supported: male characters had dissimilar general roles than females. Most (71.9%) male characters did not work in a group while 66% did so; further, 46.viii% of women were supplemental characters.

Hypothesis 1b was partially supported: males and females have different specific roles. The only significant gender difference was that men were more likely to be detectives or secret agents (run into Table two).

Table ii: Difference of proportions: Gender differences of grapheme roles

	Female person (north=47)	Male (northward=100)	95% CI	p value	z-score
Looks like real man/adult female	93.vi%	83.0%	[0.47%, 20.77%]	0.04	2.05
Detective, secret amanuensis	0.0%	7.0%	[-12.00%, -2.00%]	0.006	-2.74
Robot	0.0%	2.0%	[-iv.74%, 0.74%]	0.153	-1.43
Zombie or other "undead"	0.0%	half-dozen.0%	[-10.65%, -one.35%]	0.012	-two.53
Non-human being cartoon	two.1%	14.0%	[-19.83%, -3.93%]	0.003	-ii.93
Constabulary officer or security officeholder	2.ane%	vii.0%	[-11.36%, 1.61%]	0.141	-one.47
Soldier, warrior, ninja	10.6%	19.0%	[-20.06%, 3.34%]	0.161	-1.4
Human that can transform into something else	12.8%	22.0%	[-21.76%, 3.29%]	0.149	-1.44
Other	viii.v%	16.0%	[-18.23%, 3.25%]	0.172	-1.37

Hypothesis two determined whether in that location were gender differences in characters' appearance and attire.

Hypothesis 2a was mostly supported: there were gender differences in the advent of characters. Table iii indicates means for males were significantly higher than ways for females on the items measuring power, muscularity, violence, and evil. In comparing, means for females were significantly higher than means for males on attractiveness, thinness, sexiness/seductiveness, innocence, fearfulness, and helplessness.

Table 3: Difference of means: Gender differences in grapheme appearance

	Female person 1000 (n = 47)	Male M (n = 100)	95% CI	p value	t-Score
Evil	0.128	0.33	[-0.four, -0.004]	0.045	-2.02
Afraid	1.32	0.704	[0.236, 0.994]	0.002	iii.23
Helpless	one.3	0.81	[0.155, 0.821]	0.005	ii.92
Innocent, Sweet	one.85	0.96	[0.48, 1.303]	0.000	iv.iii
Sexy or Seductive	2.36	0.97	[0.954, i.829]	0.000	6.33
Carefree	0.81	0.97	[-0.528, 0.205]	0.383	-0.88
Happy	1.85	1.69	[-0.212, 0.534]	0.394	0.86
Angry	1.36	1.78	[-0.843, 0.006]	0.053	-1.96
Attractive	3.149	ane.8	[ane.01, 1.688]	0.000	7.87
Thin	two.66	2.14	[0.092, 0.945]	0.018	two.42
Trigger-happy	ane.37	2.23	[-one.296, -.0425]	0.000	-3.92
Muscular	0.872	2.42	[-one.929, -1.166]	0.000	-8.03
Helpful	2.4	2.58	[-0.548, 0.197]	0.352	-0.94
Powerful	ane.66	2.83	[-1.663, -0.678]	0.000	-iv.74

Hypothesis 2b was by and large supported: female characters wore more sexy and revealing clothing than males. Table 4 indicates means for female characters were significantly college than means for male person characters on variables measuring the revealing nature of non-costume clothing (east.g., clothes the character wore when not acting as the superhero) and costume wear (e.thou., superhero costume). This upshot held for both the upper trunk and the lower body. Similarly, females' non-costume article of clothing was significantly tighter than males'. The but category not meaning was the overall tightness of the costume article of clothing, which may be confounded by the tight wearable inherent to the genre.

Table 4: Departure of means: Gender differences of graphic symbol attire

	Female person M (due north = 44)	Male person Thou (n = 89)	95% CI	p value	t-score
Not-costume Clothing Revealing Overall	0.86	0.34	[0.163, 0.891]	0.005	ii.88
Non-costume Habiliment Upper Trunk Revealing	1.sixteen	0.52	[0.256, 1.029]	0.001	three.31
Not-costume Wear Lower Trunk Revealing	ane.23	0.66	[0.153, 0.976]	0.008	2.73
Not-costume Habiliment Tightness	1.36	0.76	[0.158, one.041]	0.008	2.71
	(n = 32)	(n = 70)
Costume Revealing Overall	1.50	0.59	[0.386, ane.442]	0.001	iii.48
Costume Lower Body Revealing	1.13	0.53	[0.096, one.097]	0.020	2.39
Costume Upper Body Revealing	1.44	0.69	[0.183, one.321]	0.011	two.65
Costume Overall Tightness	2.65	2.09	[-0.063, i.182]	0.077	1.80

**Note that the n varies because some characters wore but costumes, some only wore non-costumes, and some wore both.

Hypothesis 3 adamant whether in that location were gender differences in characters' special abilities and weapons.

Hypothesis 3a was partially supported: there were differences in special abilities of male and female characters. Table 5 indicates males have significantly more special abilities. Males more than oft had super force and resistance to injury, while female characters more than oft were able to manipulate elements (eastward.g., fire, water,).

Tabular array 5: Difference of proportions: Gender differences of character special abilities

	Female (n=47)	Male person (n=100)	95% CI	P-Value	Z-Score
Special Abilities Overall	68.1%	85.0%	[-31.97%, -1.86%]	0.028	-2.twenty
Go invisible	2.1%	1.0%	[-3.44%, 5.59%]	0.628	0.48
Swim	0.0%	2.0%	[-4.74%, 0.74%]	0.153	-i.43
Skateboarding/snowboarding/ bike riding	0.0%	2.0%	[-4.74%, 0.74%]	0.153	-1.43
Manipulate elements (burn down, water, ice, current of air, etc)	21.3%	seven.0%	[ane.55%, 27.00%]	0.028	2.xx
Magic	4.iii%	vii.0%	[-10.38%, 4.89%]	0.481	-0.70
Flying	17.0%	twenty.0%	[-16.28%, 10.32%]	0.661	-0.44
Special senses (seeing, hearing)	12.8%	22.0%	[-21.76%, three.29%]	0.149	-1.44
Super speed	17.0%	23.0%	[-19.52%, vii.57%]	0.387	-0.87
Resistance to injury	10.half-dozen%	32.0%	[-34.06%, -8.66%]	0.001	-iii.3
Martial arts	29.8%	40.0%	[-26.43%, 6.01%]	0.217	-1.23
Super force	17.0%	44.0%	[-41.47%, -12.48%]	<0.005	-3.65
Using weapons	36.ii%	52.0%	[-32.70%, 1.04%]	0.066	-1.84
Other	14.nine%	8.0%	[-4.59, 18.38%]	0.239	one.eighteen

Hypothesis 3b was partially supported: male person characters used more weapons than females. Tabular array half dozen indicates males were significantly more likely to employ fighting skills, fire or flame weapons, and guns.

Table 6: Difference of proportions: Gender differences of graphic symbol weapon usage

	Female (due north=47)	Male (n=100)	95% CI	P-Value	Z-Score
Were weapons used	seventy.2%	87.0%	[-31.43%, -2.15%]	0.025	-2.25
Ice / Freezing Device	4.3%	0.0%	[-1.52%, 10.03%]	0.148	1.45
Rope	0.0%	one.0%	[-2.95, 0.95%]	0.315	-1.01
Bow & Pointer	four.3%	ane.0%	[-two.84%, 9.35%]	0.295	1.05
Tank or other vehicle	0.0%	2.0%	[-4.74%, 0.74%]	0.153	-i.43
Magic Spells	2.ane%	ii.0%	[-iv.83%, five.08%]	0.96	0.05
Grenades	2.1%	nine.0%	[-13.84%, 0.09%]	0.053	-1.93
Fire / Flame	two.i%	thirteen.0%	[-18.65%, -3.10%]	0.006	-2.74
Knife / Sword	21.3%	32.0%	[-25.57%, four.13%]	0.157	-1.42
Guns	23.iv%	40.0%	[-32.05%, -1.fifteen%]	0.035	-ii.11
Fighting	34.0%	62.0%	[-44.51%, -11.40%]	0.001	-iii.31
Other	31.9%	28.0%	[-12.06%, 19.89%]	0.631	0.48

Additional Observations

Although not a major focus of the research, nosotros noted some interesting patterns regarding the race of the female person characters. For instance, they often were stereotyped, masked, and/or non-humans in movies targeted toward a non-White audition (e.chiliad., homogeneous grouping of actors of color). In the entire sample, 101 characters were White, 17 were Black, 4 were Latino, and 4 were Asian. The race of the others was unidentifiable (e.g., they wore a costume, were non-human). Considering of the very small sample of characters of colour, it is not statistically meaningful to practice quantitative comparisons of interactions between genders. However, a few notes can exist made nearly the intersections of race and gender. While a detailed qualitative analysis is beyond the scope of this paper, there are some notable observations virtually the portrayal of female characters of color.

Of the 47 female person characters, only 11 were characters of color. Five female person characters were Black—simply this is misleading because three of them were the same graphic symbol appearing in iii different movies (Ten-Men's Storm who is a mutant). One is Patience (a very stereotypical feminine name) Phillips, who plays Catwoman. Of interest, both Tempest and Catwoman characters are played by Halle Berry whose female parent is White and father is Black (although she identifies as Black). The final Black grapheme is Vanessa from Bract, who is a vampire. Notably, of these 3 characters, none is a "normal human"; they are mutants or vampires, and clothing costumes to hide their identity.

4 female characters were Asian. Argent Hawk is a Hong Kong picture show with a female person masked hero whose stereotypical expertise is martial arts. Two movies were role of a Hong Kong produced trilogy in which all the characters are Asian (e.k., Thief Catcher, the Heroic Trio). The quaternary was a female martial creative person in the Japanese film Reddish Shadow. All of these are likely marketed for Asian audience, and all iii portray Asian women in a stereotypical way.

Only two were Latina, including i that was a stereotypical role: Maria from Zorro. The other is the Pink Power Ranger who wears a costume when fighting crime. Note that they accept stereotypically Latina names (Maria) or wear femininized colors (Pinkish). Given the large (and growing) Latino population in the U.South., the lack of Latino characters is especially problematic. We hope that future research will investigate bug of race, gender, and superheroes further.

Discussion

This content analysis revealed meaning gender differences in the portrayal of superhero characters' roles, appearance, and violence. Supporting before findings of video games characters (e.g., Miller & Summers, 2007), tv shows (including cartoons; e.g., Baker & Raney, 2007), and advertisement (Paek et al., 2011), female person characters are less represented than male person characters. Researchers selected and analyzed only two male heroes and all female heroes per movie, yet there were still twice as many males. Also like to past studies (e.g., Baker & Raney, 2007), males were portrayed more oftentimes every bit individual heroes rather than teams working in groups.

Current findings replicated previous studies, which found males were portrayed every bit more powerful and muscular (e.g., Scharrer, 2004) and females as more sexy and attractive (due east.thou., Ivory, 2006). Female characters wore significantly more than revealing clothing, in both non-costume and costume (east.g., Miller & Summers, 2007) and were portrayed as more helpless than males (e.k., Aubrey & Harrison, 2004).

Finally, male person characters were more likely to have more than ane special ability and use more than one weapon.

Results have implications for superhero movie viewers, and society more broadly. If media oftentimes and consistently underrepresent female characters and portray them as supplemental characters who need the assist of others, then viewers might believe that these depictions utilize to women in general (Aubrey & Harrison, 2004). Gender differences in media part portrayals are influential because these portrayals can perpetuate stereotypes about behavioral norms for males and females (Paek et al., 2011). For example, when media portray females equally helpless and passive, males might expect females to act accordingly, and females might underestimate their ability to protect themselves.

Results of this report correspond with previous enquiry (e.g., Ivory, 2006): media portray men as powerful and muscular and women as bonny, sexy, and thin. Such portrayals might have effects on cocky-esteem and body image. Females might feel compelled to participate in more sexualized behavior by wearing more revealing clothing in order to gain acceptance from males. Females might also prefer unhealthy eating habits to be thin similar their media role models. Similarly, men might feel junior after comparing themselves to unrealistically muscular and powerful male person superhero characters. This could result in negative self-esteem, steroid usage, or other desperate attempts to create a muscular physique. According to Dittmar (2009), trunk prototype contributes to mental and physical well-being. Depression and social feet can result from dissatisfaction with one's physical advent when comparisons are made to fictional or real people,

Finally, the study has implications for viewers of tearing media. This content assay confirms that male person heroes more frequently used violence to resolve conflict (eastward.g., more use of abilities and weapons) equally compared to females (who were portrayed as significantly more helpless and agape). Viewers might infer that it is not acceptable for a man to exist compassionate; instead, he must be violent. These media portrayals might chronicle to ambitious or uncooperative behavior (Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007) or bullying (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2009). Viewers may perceive that because in that location is and then much violence (e.g., usage of weapons) in the media that violence in real life is an adequate solution to resolving conflict.

Limitations

I limitation of this study is that not all movies on the list were evaluated. This content analysis examined approximately 55% of the movies provided on the total list from Blockbuster. Due to the lack of availability or because of a foreign language, researchers were unable to determine if at that place are systematic differences in gender roles, appearance, and violence presented in those movies that were excluded. Further, information technology is possible that some superhero movies were left off the Blockbuster.com list and not considered in this study.

Another limitation is that not all superhero characters were analyzed. Researchers chose all females, but just two main male characters. Male characters who appeared only briefly in the film may differ from main characters. This procedure also means that main male characters were compared to all female characters. A comparing of simply principal male and main female characters would be a more directly evaluation.

Finally, tests of interrater reliability measured whether the researchers were coding similarly to each other, however this does not address the validity of the coding. Both researchers could have the same bias (e.g., perceiving females as more angry than males), but this is difficult to assess.

Future Directions

As mentioned previously, futurity research may benefit from an test of race/ethnicity in addition to gender every bit they relate to superheroes and they means in which they are portrayed. A quick perusal of contemporary popular superhero movies (east.g., Batman vs. Superman , Iron Human being 3 , Spider-man) indicates that nigh leading characters are White males. On the rare occasion that a female is a leading superhero character (e.g., Supergirl , Jessica Jones ) or the almost powerful graphic symbol (e.g., X-Men'south Jean Grey/Phoenix), the graphic symbol is also White.

Media portrayals tin perpetuate sexist social norms and the objectification of women. Furthermore, mainstream media commonly trivialize or hypersexualize women of color (Guzmán & Valdivia, 2004; Manatu, 2002; Martinez, 2004) and promote impossible standards of beauty (Perry, 2003). Also, women of colour are ofttimes seen every bit characters that digest to a White, Westernized culture and are repeatedly dominated or defined by men (Brooks & Hérbet, 2004; Guzmán & Valdivia, 2004). In the brief review of our sample, we noted that characters of color were often masked, given stereotypical names, or portrayed every bit characters that were non human. Interestingly, Halle Drupe (who is biracial) was called to play the Black grapheme—epitomizing the need for Blacks to be "as White" every bit possible.

The current content analysis confirmed that women were underrepresented in superhero movies. Hereafter enquiry could examine the frequency with which members of marginalized groups are represented in superhero movies and the degree to which their roles, appearance, and trend for violence may differ, especially in terms of gender.

Futurity inquiry should identify the impacts of these gender differences on flick viewers. Also, more research needs to be conducted in order to determine the impact media, specifically superhero movies, accept regarding gender function expectations and stereotypes.

Conclusion

The current report revealed significant gender differences in the portrayal of superhero characters in movies. Male superheroes outnumbered females and more oft did not piece of work in a grouping. At the same time, females were more probable to piece of work in groups, and were oftentimes supplemental characters. These portrayals might signify to viewers that females are of a lower condition and less capable of fending for themselves than males. Females wore more revealing clothing than men, which comports with other studies that discover women objectified in media. Male characters were more muscular and powerful while female characters were more attractive, sexy, thin, afraid, and helpless. Lastly, males used special abilities and weapons more than often than females, while females were more likely to manipulate natural elements. Collectively, these depictions may communicate ideas about women every bit nurturing and fertile, passive not-agentic groundwork characters and (White) men as powerful masters of reason who operate in the foreground (Plumwood, 1993).

Media influences gender roles (Signorielli, 1989), appearances (Anderson & Cavallaro, 2002), and the propensity for violence (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2009). Gender inequality may be harmful because it limits socially accustomed roles and reinforces stereotypes inside gild, which might affect how people estimate and treat others (Paek et al., 2011).

Acknowledgments

The authors would similar to give thanks Mariah Evans for her help in preparing the assay of this article.

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Appendix A

Films Included in Analyses

Barb Wire	1996	R
Batman	1989	PG-xiii
Batman & Mr. Freeze Subzero	1998	NR
Batman and Robin	1997	PG-thirteen
Batman Across: Return of the Joker	2002	PG-13
Batman Forever	1995	PG-13
Batman Returns	1992	PG-13
Blackmask	1999	R
Blade	2004	R
Blade	1998	R
Blade Trinity	2004	R
Blankman	1994	PG-thirteen
Catwoman	2004	pg-thirteen
Daredevil	2003	PG13
Dark Human two	1995	R
Darkman	1994	R
Darkman III: Dice Darkman Die	2007	R
Dick Tracy	1990	PG
Fantastic Four Rise of the Silver Surfer	2007	pg-13
Flash Gordon	1980	PG
Ghost Passenger	2007	PG xiii
Green lantern: First Flying	2009	PG-13
Hancock	2008	PG-xiii
Hellboy 2	2008	PG13
Hellboy	2004	PG-13
Hulk Vs	2009	PG-13
Ironman	2008	PG-13
Estimate Dred	1995	Activeness
Justice League: The New Frontier	2008	PG-13
Meteor Human	1993	PG
My Super Ex-Girlfriend	2006	PG-13
Mystery Men	1999	PG-13
Popeye	1980	NR (Not Rated)
Power Rangers Mystic Force Dark Wish	2006	PG
Carmine Shadow	2001	NR (Not Rated)
Sidekick	2005	non rated
Silverish Hawk	2005	PG 13
Sky Loftier	2005	PG
Spawn	1997	PG-13
Spider-human	2001	PG-thirteen
Spider-man 2	2004	PG-13
Spider-Human being iii	2007	PG-13
Super Capers	2008	PG
Superhero Movie	2008	PG-13
Superman/Batman: Public Enemies	2009	PG-xiii
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Secret of the Ooze	1991	PG
The Crow	1994	R
The Crow: City of Angels	1996	R
The Crow: Wicked Prayer	2005	R
The Crow: Conservancy	2000	R
The Dark Knight	2008	PG13
The Fantastic Four	2007	PG-13
The Heroic Trio	1992	Due north/a
The Hulk	2003	PG-thirteen
The Incredible Hulk	2008	PG-13
The incredible Blob	2003	PG-xiii
The Incredibles	2004	PG
The Invincible Iron man	2007	PG-13
The League of Extrodinary Gentlemen	2003	PG-xiii
The Ninja Turtles three	1993	PG
The Phantom	1996	PG
The Punisher	2004	R
The Punisher 1989	1989	R
The Shadow	1994	PG-13
The Spirit	2008	R
TMNT	2007	PG
Ultimate Avengers 2	2006	PG-13
Unbreakable	2000	PG-13
Underdog	2007	PG
Watchmen	2009	R
Wonder Woman	1975	NR (Not rated)
Ten-men	2000	PG-13
X-Men 2: United	2003	PG-13
X-Men, Origins	2009	PG-13
X-Men: The Concluding Stand up	2006	PG-thirteen
Zoom	2006	Grand
Zorro: Return to the Hereafter	2007	NR (not rated)

—Citation—
Miller, M. Thou., Rauch, J. A. & Kaplan, T. (2016) Gender Differences in Movie Superheroes' Roles, Appearances, and Violence. Ada: A Journal of Gender, New Media, and Technology, No. 10. doi:10.7264/N3HX19ZK

This article has been openly peer reviewed at Ada Review.

This work is licensed under a Artistic Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

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